I- Applied linguistics
1-History
2-scope of applied linguistics:
i. Interdisciplinary field
ii. Solving real world language based problems
II- Language acquisition:
1-The study of language acquisition
2-Stages of language acquisition
III- second language acquisition
1-differences & difficulty:
a. Different aspects in L1 and L2 are difficult to learn
b. Similarity and facility in learning
2-transfer theory
c. Positive transfer
d. Negative transfer
i. Evaluation
3-Contrastive analysis-Hypothesis
e. Aims
f. evaluation
g. Other sources of errors apart from learners’ L1
4-Error analysis
g. Error analysis as a reaction to contrastive analysis
h. Avoidance strategy
I- Applied linguistics
- history: from language teaching to interdisciplinarity
· at its inception in the late 1950’s, applied linguistics was principally concerned with language teaching, to the point that the two terms basically became synonymous (strevens, 1992: 11)
· Over the years, the term applied linguistics has been defined and interpreted in a number of different ways.
· In the 1950’s, the terms was commonly meant to reflect insights of structural and functional linguistics that could be directly applied to L2 learning, and also in some cases, to first language literacy. The primary objective was pedagogic.
· In the 1960’s, the term continued to be associated with the application of linguistics to language teaching, or related to practical issues.
· At the same time, Applied Linguistics became involved in matters of language acquisition(s/la) focusing on learning rather than teaching.
· ==) so, to the late 1960’s, one saw a reinforcement of the centrality of Second language teaching as applied linguistics, and also, an expansion into the realm of language use.
· In this respect, Applied Linguistics began to emerge as a genuine problem-solving enterprise.
· In the 1970’s, the broadening of the field of applied linguistics continued on a more overt specification of its role as a discipline that addresses real-world language-based problems.
2- The scope of applied linguistics
i) Interdisciplinary field:
· Definitions of applied linguistics in the 1980’s emphasized both the range of issues addressed and of disciplinary resources used n order to work on language problems.
· In the 1980’s, applied linguistics extended in a systematic way beyond language teaching and language learning issues to encompass long assessment language policy and planning use in professional settings, translation, lexicography, multilingualism, language and technology, corpus studies…etc.
· These distinctions are well documented in the first year of the Journal of Applied Linguistics and the Annual Reviews (ARAC).
· By the close of 1980’s, a common trend was to view applied linguistics as incorporating many sub-fields in addition to linguistics. (E.g. psychology, education, anthropology, sociology, political sciences, public administration, English studies including composition, rhetoric and literary studies…)
· …with these two foundations (sub-fields and supporting disciplines) was the view of applied linguistics as problem driven and real world based rather than theory driven and disconnected from language use. (kaplin & …..1933; strevens 1992)
· “Applied linguistics is not a theoretical study. It makes use of findings of theoretical studies…the applied linguist’s is a consumer, or a user, not a producer, of theories” Pit Corder (1975: 10).
ii) Solving real world language based problems
· There are two things that are generally said to characterize applied linguistics.
1- on is that it deals with problems in the “real world”: Problems in the real world in which language is implicated”, as cook puts it(2003,5).
2- The second is that it is, of its nature, interdisciplinary: it doesn’t, in spite of its name, draw only on linguistics, but on a much wider ranger of scholarly enquiry.
==) “to solve real-world problems you need to be interdisciplinary”
Sociolinguistics/linguistics aim is to produce theories that can be used to resolve questions about the real world.
Applied linguistics is not simply the application of research done in linguistics. It has to look beyond linguistics for relevant research and theory, so Applied Linguistics research often involves the synthesis of research from a variety of disciplines, including linguistics.
II- Language acquisition:
1-The study of language acquisition:
· One of the most intriguing phenomena studied by linguists is children’s acquisition of language…How children the world over are able to master the complexion of human language in the space of a few short years.
· Although we refer to the phenomena of linguistic development as “language acquisition”, the end result of this process is actually a grammar-the mental system that allows people to speak and understand a language.
· A good deal of research on the acquisition of language focuses on children’s’ early utterances, the order in which they emerge, and the kinds of errors they contain.
2- Stages of language acquisition:
There are five stages of language acquisition namely a- babbling stage -b- one-word stage -c- two-word stage -d- Telegraphic stage -e- later development.
a- babbling stage: (phonological development)
Even before children master the phonemic contrasts of their language, they begin to develop the articulatory movements needed to produce these distinctions in speech. The emergence of articulatory skills begins around six months of age, with the onset of babbling. It is likely that babbling provides children with the opportunity to experiment with and begin to gain control over their vocal apparatus.
Babbling increases in frequency until the age of about 12 months, at which time children start to produce their first understandable words. Babbling may overlap with the production of real words for several weeks before dying out. By the time children have acquired fifty words or so, they begin to adopt fairly regular patter of pronunciation.
-b- one-word stage (holophrastic-syntactic development)
Children begin to produce one-word utterances between the ages of 12 and 18 months. A basic property of these one word utterances is that they can be used to express the type of meaning that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech. Thus a child might use the word “dada” to assert “I see daddy”, or “candy” to mean “give me candy”. Such utterances are called “holophrases” (literally, whole sentence).
-c- two-word stage: (18/24 months)
Within a few months of their one-word utterances, children begin to produce two word ‘mini-sentences’. It is somewhat less clear whether children have acquired syntactic categories such as noun, verb and adjective at this point in their development. This is because the inflectional affixes that help distinguish among syntactic categories in adult English (lge.) are absent during this period. e.g. “mommy busy” “mommy push”…it suffices to say that they focus on simple semantic relations rather than syntactic categories.
-d- Telegraphic stage: (24/30 months)
After a period of several months, during which their speech is limited to one-word two word utterances, children begin to produce longer and more complex grammatical structures e.g. chair broken; daddy like book; car make noise…etc.
At first these utterances lack bound morphemes and most non-lexical categories because of their resemblance to the language found in telegrams, this acquisitional stage is often dubbed telegraphic. Over a period of several months, affixes, determiners, and auxiliary verbs emerge in accordance with a developmental sequence.
A noteworthy feature of the telegraphic stage is that despite the emergence of new syntactic structures, children virtually make no word order errors. Adult word order patterns are employed even though individual words may not have the appropriate endings.
Language development from age two onward is rapid. Children move from relatively primitive two and three word utterances at the beginning of the telegraphic stage to a broad range of syntactically intricate types in the space of a few months.
-e- later development
In the years following the telegraphic stage, children continue to acquire the complex grammar that underlies adult linguistic competence including the system of transformational rules.
Inversion is an example of later development stage. In the very early stages of language acquisition children signal yes-no questions by means of rising intonation. (Ball ‘go?). Since auxiliary verbs aren’t yet acquired, it is not possible to produce correct wh-questions nor yes-no questions in the early stages of acquisition. This takes place in later development.
The development of phrase structure
| Stage | Approx. age | development |
| Holophrastic/one-word | 1-1.5 yrs. | Single word utterances; no structure |
| Two word | 1.5- 2 yrs. | Early word combinations; unclear presence of syntactic categories |
| Telegraphic | 2-2.5 yrs. | Emergence of phrase structure, especially subject vp pattern |
| Later development | 2.5 up | Emergence of non-lexical categories: det./aux |
Second language learning
In this course, we are restricted with second language acquisition.
What are the aspects that learners find difficult to learn in second language?
How does applied linguistics help to learn a second language?
There are difficult and easy aspects for the task of learning a second language.
Mother-tongue (L1), Target-language (L2) or second language.
1-differences & difficulty:
The difference between L1 and L2 leads to difficulty in learning. It is known that all languages have the same syntactic categories or principals, such as (verbs, nouns, adjectives…) but there is a difference in the ways these are patterned. We cannot apply a rule of French on English.
There’s no systematic criteria to major the differences and similarities between languages. The terms difference and similarity are used very broadly here.
Pit Corder(1973) says that a thought of believing something difficult will be difficult and languages don’t have difficulties because there’s no easy language or difficult language.
-1- Different aspects in L1 and L2 are difficult to learn:
-Coder (1973: 229) reports that some linguists believe that “there’s the implication that difference and difficulty are synonymous”. He doesn’t believe this, he just reports it.
The student who comes in contact with a foreign language will find some features quite easy (those elements which are different from those in his native language).
Linguistic distortions=) a matter of using words in such a way that deviates from its standard meaning in an inappropriate manner.
Differences between L1 and L2 leads to facility in learning a second language, many examples prove that a learner who faces a new rule or vocabulary devotes all his capacities to know it, and when there’s a similarity, he may mix it and be lead to confusion.
-aspects that are totally different are easier to learn than others.
Pit Corder (1973: 203) states that “a very similar sound exists in a different phonetic environment; there may be a greater learning problem than in the case of totally new sounds”.
*a French learner of English will pronounce /ten/ not /then/ (/t/ aspirated) because they are very similar.
*orthographic similarity=) development /développement
System / systéme…
Grammar=) adjectives are invariable
Beautiful flowers / beautiful flowers.
-2- Similarity and facility in learning:
Some learners find that similarities between L1 & L2 make the task easier for them.
Opposition= cognate words, are words that are the same in two languages, but their meanings are different in the two languages.
-Bentahila (1983): false cognate =) les faux amis
Library =) bookshop (librairie)
Attend =) be present (wait)
Assist =) help (insist)
Figure =) number shape (face)
Actually =) in fact (in the present moment)
Resume =) continue working (summarize)
Car =) a vehicle (coach, because)…
II Transfer Theory:
-Carl James (1980:11): one speaks of transfer” when a prior learning affects a subsequent learning”. The learning of task A affects the subsequent learning of task B”.
-In fact, learners carry over some L1 patterns while learning L2.
There are two types of transfer:
- Positive transfer: occurs when the prior linguistic knowledge benefits the learning task and results in a correct performance because the new linguistic behaviour is the same as the old one. So, L1 and L2 rules are identical. Ex, the realization of plural form(s) between French and English.
- Negative transfer: (interference) a disadvantage, because the learner applies a rule of L1 to L2 which results in incorrect performances.
Krachen (1982: 27) defines “negative transfer refers to those instances of transfer which result in error, because old habitual behaviour is different from the new behaviour that is being learnt”. The learner thinks that the rules are applicable.
-Errors of negative transfer are easy to detect, but positive transfer are not.
I- evaluation:
-1- Wrong assumptions, difference- difficulty, or, similarity-facility.
-2- No definite criteria to measure similarities & differences between languages (Lacks scientific method).
-3- Positive transfer=) avoidance strategy of Shucher (1974) “when a learner makes away difficult rules in order not to use them”, and uses only simple sentences.
Contrastive analysis-Hypothesis
Aims:
Transfer theory is established within the framework of contrastive analysis. It is related to it. Contrastive analysis is a discipline that deals with comparing or contrasting two or more languages. Its aim, or its concern, is to find out what are the similarities or the differences between the languages that are contrasted.
The second aim, which is a primary aim, is to find out the areas of difficulty and of facility in learning L2.
The third aim=) similarity between L1 and L2 which leads to facility in learning L2 while difference leads to difficulty. (This assumption was proved to be wrong).
The fourth aim is to help teachers and learners achieve a better learning.
-Hammer and Rice (1965) quoted in Jackson (1981: 195) who defines contrastive analysis as “a systematic comparison of linguistic features of two or more languages, the instant of which … is to provide teachers and textbook writers with a body of information which can be of service in the preparation of instructional materials, the planning of courses and the development of classroom techniques.”
-textbooks are those books that are used by teachers and students within classrooms. They help teachers by taking into consideration contrastive analysis which predicts the difficult parts of learning a second language. Teachers know what to start with and what to postpone for attaining a proficient learning. Also, it helps them to prepare for classes, to plan courses, alongside the techniques that should be used and so on. It focuses more on the teachers and their job, it is teacher-centred.
It is a common belief between applied linguists and specialists that “any teacher has to use it’, so as to achieve a better leaning and a proficient learner.
-Lado (1957) believes that” the teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know what the real problems are, and can provide for teaching them”.
The two definitions show that that main focus/ aim of contrastive analysis is pedagogic in origin. It is addressed to teachers and learners needs. The major aim is to teach language in the most effective way, and to help teachers to provide their own teaching pedagogy so as to have a proficient learner.
Contrastive analysis is useful for teachers, but is not necessary.
Contrastive analysis evaluation:
| Strong version | Weak version |
| All learners’ errors can be predicted by considering learner’s L1. All errors of learners have one source which is their L1. “the prime cause even the sole cause of difficulty & errors in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learner’s native language”(Lee 1986: 180). =) it has a predictive power, it can predict the errors by looking at the learner’s L1. =) this version believes that L1 has a strong role because all errors are attributed to the L1 influence. | Not all errors of learners are the result of interference of L1; there are other sources of errors. Some linguists believe that to find the learner’s errors, you may find the corpus of learners’ errors, identify and analyze it. -the second step Is to find which errors are results of interference from L1 and which are not. =) this version claims a less powerful role of learner’s L1; they have other sources for learner’s errors. =)the prove that was proposed by the weak version to identify and analyze learner’s errors was criticized. 1- the process of so doing is time-consuming 2- Many critics believe that this process is silly because teachers in general know, in advance, which errors are results of learner’s L1. |
Other sources of errors apart from learners’ L1:
-Ellis (1985) believes that we have to consider some non-linguistic variables (not related to language):
1) the setting in which the second language learning takes place.
a) naturalistic second language acquisition setting: learning a language in its natural environment, daily contact with native speakers. It gives a chance to learners to get extensive and intensive contact with the second language use (receive more input)+ less chance of interference.
b) classroom second language acquisition setting: learning a language inside a classroom. This contact with the target language is artificial. it leads to the exposure to limited subjects, it is not intensive and the learning is selective=) higher possibility of interference.
Error analysis
Error analysis is a non-contrastive approach to error analysis. It is not based on contrasting or comparing languages. In fact, it came as a reaction to contrastive analysis. Though Error analysts’ don’t need a comparison between learners’ L1 and L2, they attribute some of the errors to the interference of L1. That’s a reason why some linguists’ describe the approach as a “masked contrastive analysis”. It is an indirect contrastive analysis.
Carl James (1981: 106) suggests that “it is true that contrastive analysis can predict errors which fail to materialize, it is equally true that error analysis can fail to recognize errors which have materialized.” In other words, “without expectations generated by prior contrastive analysis, it is possible that errors will pass unnoticed”.
Contrastive analysis predicts certain errors whenever they occur (covert and overt errors)
Error analysis often fails to recognize errors which occur (covert errors).
Covert errors are productions or pieces of language that seem to be correct grammatically, by the standard of target language, but do not mean to the learner what they mean to the native speaker.
Ex: French learner of English=) I visited her grand mother (In reference to a boy’s grandmother).The sentence is correct for error analysis, but for contrastive analysts, they try to find the error. “I visited his grand mother” is the correct form because the French rule of agreement of possessed nouns doesn’t exist in English. Hence, in French, they’d say “j’ai visité sa grande-mere”.
Similarly, “there’s one boy who wants to see you” is a grammatically correct sentence in English, but is not conventional. Rather than “one”, “a” should be used. Error analysts’ would let the error pass unseen, whereas contrastive analysts would recognize the error with “one, and attribute it to “un” in French (L1).
“each approach has its vital role to play in accounting for L2 problems. They should be viewed as complementing each other rather than as competitors for some procedural pride of place…there seems to be a little game in adopting an exclusive either-or approach, and the results of so doing can be positively debilitating[1]”( 1980: 187)
The two approaches should work together.
There are two separate schools in error analysis: each one has its believe concerning errors.
1- The philosophy of the first school is that errors are inevitable in any process. They believe there’s no learning without errors. Errors are the necessary steps for progress in any level.
2- Learner’s errors are due to the inadequacy of teaching methods.
*Some teaching methods are not good, and should changed.(ex. Over-emphasis on some items lead to what we call “hyper-correction”. Over-emphasis gives the learner wrong impression, he overuses it and makes errors.
*unclear instruction by the teacher: “any past action, use past tense” =) student:” last week, he wented to played football but his father said he got to finished his homework first.”
Avoidance strategy
-The tea is too hot to drink = the tea is very hot, I can’t drink it.
-The apple is so sour to eat = the apple is very sour, I can’t eat it
Errors are the criteria to evaluate and judge the proficiency of the learner, so, they are indicative.
1- Good learner doesn’t make errors.
Bad learner makes a lot of errors
This is untrue according to avoidance strategy (sort of contradiction)
2- good pronunciation means good learning
Bad pronunciation means bad learning
=) also a wrong approach.
-errors only cannot differentiate between a good and a bad learner. They are not the only criteria upon which one can judge learner’s degree of proficiency. Their importance is not to be denied though
[1] Making something weak, weakening.
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